Learn the warning signs of invented references and test whether a citation supports the statement attached to it.
Check that the source exists
Search the exact title in quotation marks. If needed, try the author, publisher, DOI, or a distinctive phrase.
Match the details
Compare author, title, publication, date, and URL. Incorrect details can point to a malformed citation.
Read the cited passage
Check whether the passage supports the exact claim, rather than merely discussing a related topic.
Follow claims back to primary material
For statistics, find the original dataset or report. For software behavior, use official documentation.
Label uncertainty honestly
If you cannot retrieve a source, call it unverified rather than presenting it as genuine.
Editorial note: This guide is for general educational purposes. Verify important claims with authoritative sources before publication or action.